Strategies for Overcoming Endogamy

Have you ever suspected that endogamy was affecting your DNA analysis? You might notice a large number of matches from an island population or isolated area. The matches might seem to share a lot of DNA but no common ancestor can be determined. Clustering matches doesn’t seem to produce clusters related along different ancestral lines. Instead, you find one big mass of tightly connected matches. The total amount of shared DNA points to a second cousin relationship, but there are actually no longer segments of DNA – just lots of small segments. These are all signs of endogamy. 

Despite the challenges endogamy can bring, using DNA evidence to learn about the ancestry of a DNA test-taker from an endogamous population is still possible. In this post, I will share some strategies, resources to learn more, and an example of working with endogamy from research I performed for a client.

Other Articles in this Series

Endogamy, Pedigree Collapse and Multiple relationships: What’s the Difference and Why does it matter? by Diana Elder, AG
How Multiple Relationships Affect DNA Match Analysis by Nicole Elder Dyer
Multiple Relationships in an African-American Case Study by Allison Kotter
The Effect of Pedigree Collapse on DNA Matching: A Case Study by Nicole Elder Dyer
Visualizing Complicated Relationships: Working with Pedigree Collapse, Multiple Relationships, and Endogamy by Steve Little
Strategies for Overcoming Endogamy by Nicole Elder Dyer
The Irish: Endogam-ish by Heidi Mathis
Endogamy: Ashkenazi Jewish Case by Heidi Mathis

Endogamy and DNA Analysis

Endogamy is defined as “the practice of marrying within the same ethnic, cultural, social, religious or tribal group.”¹ When marrying within the same group occurs over and over for several generations, descendants of this population begin to share many segments of DNA with each other, complicating autosomal DNA analysis.

Diana wrote about the three terms that often get confused when talking about endogamy and DNA analysis – Endogamy, Pedigree Collapse, and Multiple Relationships. Sometimes, a person will have one instance of a double cousin (multiple relationships) with a DNA match. Other people have an isolated instance of pedigree collapse in the pedigree – perhaps their grandparents were 3rd cousins to each other. However those with endogamy have multiple relationships with many of their DNA matches and several instances of pedigree collapse.

These multiple relationships and collapsed pedigrees cause an inflated amount of DNA between a pair of DNA matches who come from the same endogamous community. They share more than the expected amount of DNA for the closest known relationship, because of the multiple pathways of inheritance from the same ancestors and multiple common ancestral couples.

Endogamy as a Spectrum

Paul Woodbury talked about endogamy as a spectrum in his Legacy Family Tree Webinar, “Dealing with Endogamy.” He showed a continuum with non-endogamous populations on one end, and severe endogamy at the other end. Pedigree collapse and endogamous were somewhere between.²

Leah Larkin also talked about mild, moderate, and strong endogamy in her RootsTech talk from 2021.³ 

She has been collecting data about the average segment size for DNA matches with two or more grandparents from the same endogamous population and compiling it. The average segment size for matches in the Ancestry “fourth cousin range” (20-89cM) is smaller for endogamous populations than for non-endogamous populations. In her lecture, she shares a table of the average segment size for various endogamous populations. Highly endogamous populations get smaller average segment sizes sooner (i.e. in the second and third cousin range) than non-endogamous populations, as can be seen in the red cells in Leah’s table.⁴

To learn more about how Leah has calculated the average segment size and how she categorizes it using the cousin categories at Ancestry, you can watch her 2016 lecture from the Institute for Genetic Genealogy. This is a bit outdated, but her explanation of the average segment size and the fate of a segment are helpful.⁵

How to Identify Endogamy

Leah Larkin’s average segment size calculations can be used to gauge the level of endogamy in your tree. Test takers with a jump from an average segment size of 17-23cM for the 2nd and 3rd cousin range but then much smaller segment size like 8-14 cM for the 4th cousin category (20-90cM), can recognize endogamy or a population with endogamous-like genetic effects (such as lower genetic diversity, sharing many small segments of DNA from distant founders, etc.). 

Sometimes, people from endogamous populations may not know of any recent pedigree collapse in their tree. Building the pedigree back to the 5th great-grandparents and beyond helps to find these instances of pedigree collapse. For example, Lara Diamond, who has Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry, shared how she first discovered an instance of pedigree collapse in her tree. She found an ancestor with the same name in two places in her tree. Then she noticed that the locations for that ancestor were geographically close. As she studied the locations, she found that the locations were actually the same place. Discovering that this ancestor was in her tree twice showed that her 2nd-great-grandparents were second cousins.⁶

Lara had found multiple relationships with her cousin matches in the past.⁷ People from endogamous populations will usually find both multiple relationships with DNA matches and pedigree collapse in their tree.

Terminology

The strict definition of endogamy is marrying within one’s community. Endogamy practiced over many generations causes descendants to be genetically similar, and share many small segments of DNA. However, this effect (genetic similarity) can be seen in populations that don’t practice endogamy. In genetic genealogy, we often refer to communities that lack genetic diversity as endogamous, whether or not the cause is marrying within one’s community. Some communities that are labeled endogamous are actually genetically similar due to the founder effect and/or population bottlenecks, defined below. Sometimes endogamy, the founder effect, and population bottlenecks occur together, increasing the genetic similarity of a population.⁸

Founder effect: “A founder effect, as related to genetics, refers to the reduction in genomic variability that occurs when a small group of individuals becomes separated from a larger population. Over time, the resulting new subpopulation will have genotypes and physical traits resembling the initial small, separated group, and these may be very different from the original larger population.”⁹

Population bottleneck: “A population bottleneck or genetic bottleneck is a sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events such as famines, earthquakes, floods, fires, disease, and droughts; or human activities such as specicide, widespread violence or intentional culling, and human population planning. Such events can reduce the variation in the gene pool of a population; thereafter, a smaller population, with a smaller genetic diversity, remains to pass on genes to future generations…”¹⁰ 

Population bottlenecks cause many people from one ethnic group to share the same segments of DNA. These segments are often called population segments. A test-taker with a grandparent from an endogamous community may find tons of DNA matches sharing the same segment, all from that same endogamous community. This can actually be helpful in assigning that segment to a certain ethnicity.¹¹

Another definition that might be helpful is “intermarriage.” This word is tricky because it can be used in two ways.

Intermarriage: 1. Marriage between people of different groups. 2. Marriage within a specific group. ¹² In genetics, intermarriage is often used to discuss marriage between people of different groups, unless it specifically says “intermarriage within their own community” or something similar.

Why does Endogamy Occur?

Endogamy often occurs in geographically isolated communities, like islands and mountainous areas, where marriage partners are limited. Examples of isolated communities with endogamy include Appalachia, the Italian Alps, and Puerto Rico.¹³ 

Some religions require marriage within the religion, like Mennonites, the Amish, and Ashkenazi Jews. 

Endogamous populations that are geographically isolated, and have experienced the founder effect and population bottlenecks, have more severe genetic effects, like Polynesians. They are more genetically similar to other Polynesians than those from mildly endogamous populations.¹⁴ 

Ashkenazi Jews have strong levels of endogamy due to mandated marriage within their religion; yet contributing to the genetic effects of endogamy practiced over many generations are the founder effect and two severe population bottlenecks Ashkenazi Jews experienced in A.D. 75 and between A.D. 1100-1400.¹⁵

Challenges of using DNA Evidence with Endogamy

One of the biggest challenges of DNA analysis with test-takers from endogamous communities is that their DNA matches are more genetically similar to them than those from non-endogamous communities. They will share more DNA than the typical amounts for cousin relationships according to the Shared cM Project and other studies. This effect is mostly seen for matches more distant than first cousins. DNA matches that the testing company puts in the second cousin category are often more distant – like 5th cousins several times over. ¹⁶ Prioritizing DNA matches for further investigation becomes tricky when you’re not sure which matches are truly close matches.

Another challenge is that clustering tools don’t effectively separate matches into groups. Instead, one single group or cluster will include all or most of the matches.¹⁷

Marie’s Acadian and French Canadian Lines

My research team worked on several research projects for a client I will call Marie. She has given permission for her case to be discussed here. Marie’s maternal grandfather was French Canadian. Her maternal grandmother was from Nova Scotia with Scottish and Acadian origins. Her paternal ancestors were from Massachusetts and not from endogamous populations.

I downloaded Marie’s AncestryDNA matches to a spreadsheet using the DNAGedcom client. She has 512 matches sharing over 35 cM. I added a column to the spreadsheet to mark if the match is maternal or paternal, using Ancestry’s maternal/paternal designations since neither of Marie’s parents have tested. Only 50 matches of the 512 matches were labeled paternal. All the other 462 matches were maternal! I expected the maternal side to have more DNA matches because I suspected endogamy on her mother’s French Canadian and Nova Scotia lines. 

French Canadians are sometimes discussed as an endogamous group within the genetic genealogy community. It’s probably more accurate to say they experienced the founder effect.¹⁸ 

French Canadians descend from a small group of French immigrants who settled in Quebec from 1608-1760. When the British took over New France in 1760, French immigration to Quebec ceased. These French founders had children who probably married within their ethnic group, although they also intermarried with the Acadians and British settlers who began arriving, increasing the genetic diversity of the population.¹⁹

Due to the small number of founders of the French Canadian ethnic group, similar effects are seen in DNA analysis of French Canadians to endogamous populations. These challenges include large numbers of matches, multiple common ancestral couples, inflated amounts of total shared DNA, and difficulty separating clusters of matches into distinct lines of the family. 

Did the American colonies also experience the founder effect? British immigrants to the American colonies numbered about 360,000. By contrast, the 8,500 founders of the French Canadians are thought to be a relatively small group.²⁰

Marie’s Nova Scotia lines go back to several Acadian ancestors. Acadians were French settlers of the New France Colony in the 1600-1700s in the Eastern Canadian maritime provinces, including New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and more. They mainly came from the southwestern region of France, known as Occitania. They developed their own culture and were different from other French colonies of the time.²¹

Map of New France, 1720²²

Marie’s Network Graph

I created a network graph for Marie’s AncestryDNA matches to identify distinct clusters of matches from her family lines. If only one or two of a test-taker’s grandparents is from an endogamous community, a network graph can be helpful. However, if three or four of the grandparents are from the same endogamous community, a network graph will not show distinct clusters of matches from different family lines, just one large cluster.

For Marie’s network graph, I used matches from 25-300 cM from AncestryDNA, a total of 2,444 matches. There were 927,327 rows of shared matches in the ICW spreadsheet. A common problem for making network graphs with test-takers from endogamous populations is that the ICW file is too large to edit in Excel, which has a limit of 1,048,576 rows. If all the matches are shared matches with each other, then there will be connecting lines between everyone in the graph. Limiting the range of shared cM can help, but with severely endogamous populations, it doesn’t. To learn how to make a network graph, see my tutorial here: Creating Gephi Network Graphs Part 1: Gather Matches and Prepare Spreadsheets.

Marie’s network graph shows three large clusters accounting for 96% of the matches. The other 3.7% of the matches were divided into 8 very small clusters, mostly representing Marie’s paternal side. The large clusters seem to be maternal.

Cluster 0 includes descendants of Marie’s maternal grandmother’s Nova Scotia ancestors from the 1800s, and possibly her Scottish line. Marie’s maternal grandmother’s father descended from Scots and her maternal grandmother’s mother descended from Acadians. 

Cluster 1 has many connecting lines to cluster 0. Matches from cluster 0 appear to be descendants of Acadians living on Île Saint-Jean in the 1700s (now known as Prince Edward Island).²³

Several matches in cluster 7 share common ancestors with Marie from Quebec. This appears to be the French Canadian cluster. Many of the matches from the Acadian cluster and the French Canadian cluster have shared matches in common, as illustrated by the thousands of connecting lines between the pink and green clusters.This probably means they have multiple common ancestors, some on different lines than Marie. 

Although the Acadians only account for about ⅛ of Marie’s pedigree, the Acadian cluster accounts for 50% of the matches in her network graph. The French Canadian cluster accounts for 34.7% of the matches in her network graph. The high number of matches is a giveaway for endogamy. Do other signs indicate strong levels of endogamy for the Acadian and French Canadian clusters? Let’s check the average segment size. I exported the data laboratory from Gephi for my network graph and sorted the matches by cluster. Then I divided the total shared cM by the number of segments, and averaged them for each cousin range.

The 2nd cousin, 3rd cousin, and 4th cousin, and distant cousin range designations that AncestryDNA gives to each DNA match in the spreadsheet when downloaded with the DNAGedcom client. Matches above 20 and less than 90 are in the 4th cousin range. Matches sharing from 90-199 cM are in the 3rd cousin range. Matches sharing 200-600 cM are in the 2nd cousin range. I didn’t have any distant cousins in my network graph, but Ancestry considers those sharing less than 20 cM to be in the distant cousin range.

The table below shows the average segment size for each cluster. Some clusters didn’t have any 2nd or 3rd cousins, so that’s why you’ll see n/a.

The sooner the average segment length jumps down below 10-15 cM, the stronger the endogamy. The Acadian cluster had the lowest average segment size, 11.2 cM for matches in the 4th cousin range. This seems to match what Leah Larkin found – that Acadians have smaller average segment sizes in the 3rd and 4th cousin range, and thus have a strong level of endogamy. ²⁴

I was somewhat surprised to see that the average segment size for the French Canadian cluster was 21.7cM. I only included matches who shared 25 cM and above – so I wonder if I included matches sharing less than 25cM, what I would find out about the French Canadian cluster. 

Strategies for Working with Endogamy in Autosomal DNA

To use DNA matches from endogamous populations as evidence for genealogical conclusions, different strategies must be used to overcome the challenges we discussed earlier.

Increase Threshold for Smallest Segment

To know which matches are truly second cousin level matches, you can manipulate a downloaded spreadsheet of matches from companies with segment data and increase the threshold for the smallest segment. Essentially, you’ll remove small segments and recalculate the total amounts of shared DNA. This can help you see which second cousin matches are truly that close. For those in severely endogamous populations, you may need to increase the threshold for the smallest segment to 15 cM. For mild to moderate endogamous populations, somewhere between 10-15 could also be beneficial. For more ideas about how to do this, see Paul Wodbury’s webinar and syllabus.²⁵

Longest Segment

A simple way to prioritize your match list and decide which matches to focus on is to sort your match list by the longest segment. You can do this in FamilyTreeDNA (sort by > longest block), MyHeritage (sort by > largest segment) and GEDmatch (in the One-to-Many list click Largest twice). 23andMe does not allow you to sort your match list by longest segment, but you can figure it out by using the Advanced DNA Comparison (chromosome browser) tool. 

AncestryDNA does not allow you to sort by longest segment either, but they do report the longest segment size. When I downloaded Marie’s match list recently from AncestryDNA using DNAGedcom Client, I did not see a column for longest segment, so that was disappointing. I do keep track of the longest segment in Airtable though, so after adding several matches to your Airtable base, you could sort them by longest segment to help you prioritize. Learn more about Airtable here: Airtable Research Logs.

The longest segment isn’t the only consideration. Lara Diamond suggests looking at both the total amount of shared DNA and the longest segment to help you prioritize matches.²⁶ In Airtable, you can apply multiple sorting levels, just like Excel. You could sort first by longest segment, then sort by total shared DNA. 

Ethnicity Chromosome Paintings

23andMe provides an Ancestry composition painting in chromosome browser format. It shows which segments came from which ethnicities. If your test-taker is from an endogamous community that has its own ethnicity label at 23andMe, then you could use this tool to help you check to see if the ancestral line you hypothesize for a segment matches the ethnicity for that segment. FamilyTree DNA also has an ethnicity chromosome painting that you can try this with.²⁷ 

Segment Mapping

Using DNA Painter to map segments to ancestors can be a helpful way to organize DNA matches and figure out which segments came from which ancestors. To be successful, consider raising your threshold for segments to paint from 7cM to something higher, around 10-15 cM.²⁸ 

Viewing which segments an unknown match overlaps with can sometimes help you determine which lines they are related through. Lara Diamond hypothesized that one of her matches was related on five different lines of her family tree, by utilizing segment mapping. ²⁹ 

Increase Coverage

One test-taker, or one data point, is not as helpful as several data points. To help you determine truly relevant matches, compare them with multiple test-takers.³⁰ 

If one of your matches has a longest segment that is medium length, but a relatively long segment with your sibling and 2 of your 1st cousins, prioritize that match. To learn more about coverage, see my post here: Find More Ancestors with Autosomal DNA by Increasing Coverage.

Finding a test-taker who descends from the ancestral couple you are researching, but whose ancestors did not stay in the endogamous community, can help you find relevant matches. Paul Woodbury calls these people genetic pioneers. ³¹

X-DNA Analysis

To determine which matches could be from the ancestor you’re researching, find a test-taker who inherited X-DNA from that ancestor. Then, focus on long blocks of X-DNA and identifying the MRCA with those matches. Just be careful to avoid small X-DNA segments, since there’s a higher chance of false matches on the X-chromosome. Less SNPs are tested on the x-chromosome. The most problematic are segments shared between two females. Matches for males are better because they are naturally phased, since males only receive one X-chromosome.³²

Kalani Mondoy shared how he ignored some segments on the X chromosome that were 10 and 8 cM because they were too small and would have been misleading.³³

Additional Testing

Y-DNA testing and mitochondrial DNA testing can both help narrow down the origins of specific lines. To find candidates for testing that would help with specific lines of your tree, trace down the matrilineal or patrilineal lines of your ancestors. If you use the FamilySearch Family Tree, you can spot matrilineal and patrilineal lines easily by using Puzzilla, a web tool that works with FamilySearch.

Marie’s Case

One of the projects my team worked on for Marie was a research question on her French Canadian line. Our goal was to find the parents of her great-grandfather who was born in 1867 in Quebec, and died in the 1930s in Massachusetts. Previously, our research had focused on one of Marie’s paternal lines that went back to Ireland and Scotland, and DNA evidence was somewhat scarce. We found that most of her DNA matches were maternal, so I was hopeful that we would have plenty of DNA evidence to help move the French Canadian line further back in time. However, Marie didn’t have any matches that were descended from the 2nd-great-grandparents we found using documentary research. All of the matches in the French Canadian cluster were much further back in time, sharing many small segments, and beyond where we had been able to trace Marie’s tree. Complicating the analysis was the fact that there were so many Acadian matches. 

Future research on Marie’s family tree could focus on a combination of documentary research and cluster analysis, and segment analysis. 

• Cluster Analysis: Since we were able to separate her matches into a cluster of French Canadian matches and a cluster of Acadian matches, we could work on identifying common ancestors among the matches in the French Canadian cluster. 
• Increase Coverage: Two first cousins who descend from Marie’s maternal grandparents have tested at Ancestry. Asking them to share their DNA match list could help prioritize which matches share a higher amount of DNA with longer segments. Even better though would be to target test one of Marie’s second cousins who descend from her great-grandparents on the French Canadian line, who hopefully don’t have any Acadian ancestry to complicate the analysis.
• Segment Mapping: map segments to DNA painter and compare with ethnicities from Marie’s 23andMe Ancestry [ethnicity] chromosome painting.
• X-DNA Analysis: to determine more about the French Canadian origins of Marie’s maternal grandfather’s mother, look for X-DNA matches at 23andMe, FTDNA, and GEDmatch whose trees go back to Quebec. 

 

To learn more about overcoming endogamy, we encourage you to join our Research Like a Pro with DNA Study group or Diahan Southard’s Endogamy Course. Also, Leah Larkin will be presenting her endogamy lecture on March 7 and March 8, 2023. Follow her on Event Brite to receive updates about future events: Leah Larkin Events.

1. “Endogamy,” ISOGG Wiki (https://isogg.org/wiki/Endogamy :  last edited on 1 January 2023, at 20:16.)
2. Paul Woodbury, “Dealing with Endogamy,” 14 Oct 2020, webinar, Legacy Family Tree Webinars (https://familytreewebinars.com/webinar/dealing-with-endogamy/ : accessed 4 Jan 2023).
3. Leah Larkin, “When Your Tree Is a Banyan: Untangling Endogamy Part 2,” lecture, RootsTech 2021. The recording is not available online anymore, but Leah usually offers it annually through her own lecture series. See https://www.eventbrite.com/o/leah-larkin-33589509119 or https://thednageek.com/events/.
4. Leah Larkin, “Contribute to the Endogamy Study,” 25 Feb 2021, blog post, The DNA Geek (https://thednageek.com/contribute-to-the-endogamy-study/ : accessed 3 Jan 2023). View a larger screenshot of the table here: https://i0.wp.com/thednageek.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Screen-Shot-2021-02-25-at-2.04.53-PM.png?resize=768%2C432&ssl=1
5. Leah Laperle Larkin, “When Your Tree Is a Banyan: Coping with Endogamy in Genetic Genealogy,” 2016, Institute for Genetic Genealogy; video archive, I4GG (https://i4gg.org/2016-videos/ : accessed 3 Jan 2023).
6. Lara Diamond, “My Pedigree Has Collapsed!” 17 Apr 2016, blog post, Lara’s Jewnealogy (https://larasgenealogy.blogspot.com/2016/04/my-pedigree-has-collapsed_17.html : accessed 3 Jan 2023.
7. Lara Diamond, “Double Cousins, Double the Fun?” 27 Mar 2016, blog post, Lara’s Jewnealogy (https://larasgenealogy.blogspot.com/2016/03/double-cousins-double-fun.html : accessed 3 Jan 2023).
8. Jayne Ekins, “Founder Effect | DNA and Endogamy,” blog post, Your DNA Guide (https://www.yourdnaguide.com/ydgblog/founder-effect : accessed 5 Jan 2023).
9. “Founder Effect,” National Human Genome Research Institute (https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Founder-Effect : updated 4 Jan 2023).
10. “Population bottleneck,” Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_bottleneck : last edited on 29 November 2022, at 19:24 UTC.)
11. Roberta Estes, “What is a Population Bottleneck?” 9 July 2015, DNA Explained (https://dna-explained.com/2015/07/09/what-is-a-population-bottleneck/ : accessed 4 Jan 2023).
12. “intermarriage,” Dictionary.com (https://www.dictionary.com/browse/intermarriage : accessed 5 Jan 2023).
13. Paul Woodbury, “Dealing with Endogamy,” 14 Oct 2020, webinar, Legacy Family Tree Webinars (https://familytreewebinars.com/webinar/dealing-with-endogamy/ : accessed 4 Jan 2023). Paul mentions his experience analyzing DNA from endogamous communities in the Italian Alps and Puerto Rico.
14. Kalani Mondoy, “Not all endogamy is the same,” 11 Nov 2014, Polynesian DNA (https://hawaiiandna.wordpress.com/2014/11/11/not-all-endogamy-is-the-same/ : accessed 4 Jan 2023).
15. Montgomery Slatkin, “A population-genetic test of founder effects and implications for Ashkenazi Jewish diseases,” American Journal of Human Genetics 75: 282–293; article online National Library of Medicine (https://doi.org/10.1086/423146 : accessed 4 Jan 2023).
16. Lara Diamond, “Endogamy in Practice: Updated,” 29 Mar 2017, blog post, Lara’s Jewnealogy (https://larasgenealogy.blogspot.com/2017/03/endogamy-in-practice-updated.html : accessed 3 Jan 2023).
17. For an example, see Kalani Mondoy, “In-common-with, shared matches, and clusterings,” 19 Dec 2022, blog post, Polynesian DNA (https://hawaiiandna.wordpress.com/2022/12/19/in-common-with-shared-matches-and-clusterings/comment-page-1/ : accessed 3 Jan 2023).
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20. Bherer, Claude; Labuda, Damian; Roy-Gagnon, Marie-Hélène; Houde, Louis; Tremblay, Marc; Vézina, Hélène, “Admixed ancestry and stratification of Quebec regional populations,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 144 : 432–41; article online, Constellation (https://constellation.uqac.ca/id/eprint/8289/1/8289.pdf : accessed 5 Jan 2023).
21. “Acadians,” Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acadians : last edited on 29 December 2022, at 02:30 UTC).
22. Henry Chatelain, “Nouvelle Carte De l’amerique Septentrionale Dressee sur les plus Nouvelles Observations de Messieurs de l’Academie,” 1720; image online, Wikimedia (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1720_Chatelain_Map_of_North_America_-_Geographicus_-_Amerique-chatelain-1720.jpg : accessed 4 Jan 2023).
23. “Acadians,” Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acadians : last edited on 29 December 2022, at 02:30 UTC).
24. See her table in the blog post here – Leah Larkin, “Contribute to the Endogamy Study,” 25 Feb 2021, blog post, The DNA Geek (https://thednageek.com/contribute-to-the-endogamy-study/ : accessed 3 Jan 2023).
25. Paul Woodbury, “Dealing with Endogamy,” 14 Oct 2020, webinar, Legacy Family Tree Webinars (https://familytreewebinars.com/webinar/dealing-with-endogamy/ : accessed 4 Jan 2023).
26. Lara Diamond, “A Technique for Endogamous DNA Using GedMatch,” 12 Mar 2017, blog post, Lara’s Jewnealogy (https://larasgenealogy.blogspot.com/2017/03/a-technique-for-endogamous-dna-using.html : accessed 3 Jan 2023).
27. For an example, see Kalani Mondoy, “New 5th Cousin connection helps map out chromosome!” 4 Dec 2016, blog post, Polynesian DNA (https://hawaiiandna.wordpress.com/2016/12/04/new-5th-cousin-connection-helps-map-out-chromosome/ : accessed 3 Jan 2023).
28. Lara Diamond, “Chromosome mapping and endogamy,”30 Jan 2022, DNA Painter Blog (https://blog.dnapainter.com/blog/chromosome-mapping-and-endogamy/ : accessed 5 Jan 2023).
29. Lara Diamond and Israel Pickholtz, “Endogamous Diamonds, Continued,” 5 Apr 2016, blog post, Lara’s Jewnealogy (https://larasgenealogy.blogspot.com/2016/04/endogamous-diamonds-continued.html : accessed 5 Jan 2023).
30. For an example of comparing multiple test-takers to matches, see Lara Diamond, “Endogamy In action; Sibling Edition,”1 May 2016, blog post, Lara’s Jewnealogy (https://larasgenealogy.blogspot.com/2016/05/endogamy-in-action-sibling-edition.html : accessed 5 Jan 2023).
31. Paul Woodbury, “Dealing with Endogamy,” 14 Oct 2020, webinar, Legacy Family Tree Webinars (https://familytreewebinars.com/webinar/dealing-with-endogamy/ : accessed 4 Jan 2023).
32. “X-Chromosome Testing,” ISOGG Wiki (https://isogg.org/wiki/X-chromosome_testing : last edited on 12 July 2022, at 15:09).
33. “Finding a DNA Connection Despite Endogamy,” 1 Aug 2015, blog post, Polynesian DNA (https://hawaiiandna.wordpress.com/2015/08/01/finding-a-dna-connection-despite-endogamy/ : accessed 5 Jan 2023).